IBRAHIM PASHA: A CHRISTIAN HERO IN THE OTTOMAN PALACE.

• Author: Olaqi, Fahd Mohammed Taleb Saeed Al

1. Introduction

   Elkanah Settle's Ibrahim the Illustrious Bassa (1677) is based on history. It is introduced to the audience in the English Age of Enlightenment and the emerging trend of Turkish Orientalism with admiration to the Ottoman Empire. The infidelity of the Ottoman Sultan is traditionally a fascinating material for the English audience, and reveals the decay and decline of the Ottoman Kingdom. For many Englishmen in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Ottoman Realm story is an illustration of the interest in the Turkish Orientalism. The reoccurrence of several Ottoman royal issues in English literature like Settle's Ibrahim makes the Turkish Orientalism a perfect material for reading and teaching the Oriental Other. Louis Wann divides that period into four main phases in which the second phase, extending from 1586 to 1611, is clearly the most significant one since thirty-two plays out of forty-seven were written in this period (Wann 1915: 424-426). The historic story of Ibrahim was as a source for the Ottoman Sultan's numerous crimes, great sins and regular breaking of promises (Ibr., Act V. 595-6). Some Western chroniclers have repeated tales of wickedness and cruelty inflicted by the so-called 'scourge of God' that portrays the world of inhuman cruelties practiced by the Turks (Chew 1965: 14). The matter of the Turkish Empire has led even the significant English playwrights of the period such as Marlowe, Greene, Peele, Dekker and Shakespeare to write plays dealing with the Ottoman oppression.

   The despotism of Sultan Soliman's ambition to hold the lands and nations of the East and the West was the main source of fear in Europe (Murphey 2001: 201). English dramatists showed Soliman (1) as corrupt for his own religiosity as a result of his ethnic aggression and post colonialism. Settle's Persian prince, Ulama depicts the arrogance of Sultan Soliman as much above the state of human beings:

   Be Great, Proud, Glorious, Blest; Live, Love, and Reign In Happiness above the State of Man. Consider but how much of Heav'n dwells there, And call your self our Prophets Son and Heir. (Ibr., Act V. 566) The Ottoman colonialism was a big nightmare for the Christian European nations. Settle reports evidently in saying: "The Turkish Crescents were Triumphant there" (Ibr., Act II. 484). The Ottoman expansionism reached its peak with the annexation of many Eastern parts of Europe. Therefore, the Ottoman practices and traditions are fundamentally misinterpreted in Europe (Shouket 2020: 1). The news of Sultan Soliman got popularity in the West because of his conquests and the development of civilization (Hendry 2015: 170). Settle also acknowledges his high reputation in the whole world saying:

   How faintly Fame does Solyman present In those weak names, Great and Magnificent. Those Attributes the Christian World does give, And those from Fear and Envy you receive. (Ibr., Act II. 257-60) The audience of the Restoration Age was keen on the story of the European Ibrahim. In early English literature, writers explored the personal life of the Ottoman Soliman in lust and oppression to defuse his growing reputation in England. In Soliman's lust for Isabella and heart-break of his wife Roxolana, Settle's Ibrahim describes the vehement force and the wicked roles of various cultural and political depictions in the ever-changing discourse of the Ottoman court. In addition, Ibrahim refuses to live in the designation of the Ottoman honour, comfort and safety and explores his Christian justice.

   England was influenced, as part of the Western World, by Turkish military and trade. The Anglo-Ottoman partnership made changes in the English public life. Therefore, the English interest in the Ottoman material was of curiosity. The imperial and domestic life was exciting to the English audience. Sultan Soliman (1520-1566) became a figure of Oriental antagonism. Thus, the Vizier Pasha in Settle's Ibrahim is a portrait of the corruption of fear from Turkey that made Europeans away from understanding the Orient and its people. Settle's play offered the English distorted images of the Turks and the Orient. The deposition of the Christian Ibrahim depicts the Ottoman stereotypes as Muslim oppressors. It shows how horrible is Sultans' regime in using Islamic instruments of ill doctrines for Soliman's personal lust and greed. The disloyalty of Sultan Soliman to the faithful friendship of Ibrahim Pasha recounts horrors and ills of his own nation. Settle's representation to Soliman's infidelity, errors and prejudice serves as a reflection of the popular notion about the Ottoman typecasts in England.

   Elkanah Settle (1648-1724) was a pioneer English poet and dramatist. He produced Cambyses, King of Persia (1667), Empress of Morocco (1673) and Ibrahim the illustrious Bassa (1677). Settle was a rival author to John Dryden. He achieved great success in 1691, once he was honourably entitled as a London poet. Settle has frankly admitted in the prelude of Ibrahim that he is not an aristocratic wit, but he is considered an excellent playwright in the Age of Dryden. Although Dryden seemed jealous of Settle, he appreciated his work. Settle's Ibrahim the illustrious Bassa (1677) is a tragedy staged in winter 1676 at the Duke's Theatre. The play is a cultural portrait from the Restoration Drama. In history, the converted Muslim Ibrahim Pasha (1493-1536) was a popular character in Europe (Atil, 1998: 147). His tragedy was retrospectively reflected to the young European immigrants to the Ottoman Empire--starting from a boy slave to a very important person. Settle's Ibrahim is highly influential in establishing the destructive life of Christians dreaming of a better future in Turkey. The devastating tragedy of the faithful Christian commander of Soliman attributes to several information and factual stories about the Ottoman bad reputation. Settle proudly states that 'the Great and Faithful Ibrahim, (To whose success the Sultans glory's due) /.../ Ibrahim is everywhere a Conqueror' (Ibr, Act I. 43, 45). Settle's Ibrahim represents Christian values and characteristics to the Turkish Sultan (Ibr, Act I. 193-4).

   The Christian image of Ibrahim Pasha is portrayed along with Sultan Soliman in Renaissance Drama. Besides Settle, an image of Ibrahim appears in Fulke Greville's Mustapha (1594) and Alaham (c. 1600), Kyd's The Tragedy of Soliman and Perseda (1588), Roger Boyle's Mustapha, the Son of Solyman the Magnificent (1668), William Davenant's The Siege of Rhodes (1656), and the Early of Orrery's Mustapha (1664). A splendid depiction of Ibrahim Pasha is associated with an evil portrayal of Sultan Soliman in these plays. The tragic story of Ibrahim Pasha echoed in Europe literature. The French epic, "Ibrahim Or The illustrious bassa: An excellent new romance" (in four parts), was written in French by Monsieur de Scudery, and translated into English by Henry Cogan in 1652. In Settle, the presentation of Soliman-Ibrahim execution story is to praise the myth of a Christian. Kyd's Erastus is introduced on the historical character Ibrahim Pasha, subsequently Ibrahim Pasha is considered as one of the prominent consultants of Sultan Soliman's sovereignty (Gulter 2019: 29-38). Settle did not value such favourable, authentic views about the Ottoman Empire and the Turks. However, the false and distorted information about the Ottoman continued to be circulated widely and were reflected in various plays. These plays contain the same story of Ibrahim Pasha with much attention to the violent policy of the Ottoman Empire. As far as to the Turkish commander Ibrahim, he was one of European converted children brought up in the Ottoman's palace with professional and multiple skills. Settle's Ibrahim identifies his ill-fated life as he has lost hope since '[his] Family destroy'd, my hopes undone' (Ibr., Act II. 32). Settle's use of the bloody Turkish material is superficial and decorative since his play contains popular and genuine Turkish episodes or themes.

   The dreadful image of the imperial Ottoman family is a prototype example of the whole Turkish Empire. It is an output of some European suffering from the Ottoman Empire subjugation. English hostility is behind the horrible criminal theme of Ibrahim on London stage. Historically, this first Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire was a close friend of Soliman from their youth. Ibrahim Pasha was appointed by Soliman as Grand Vizier in 1523. At the highest level, he accomplished a level of power and effect in the Empire, but in 1536, he was cruelly executed on Soliman's orders and his property was confiscated by the Turkish state. Consequently, this tragic story interpreted in the English views as an immoral reward from Soliman to Ibrahim Pasha's support and love. However, Settle...