ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD.

• Author: Engelbrecht, Juri

The Temple of Science is a multi-faceted building. Albert Einstein 1. Introduction

The history of academies is usually traced back to Plato's Akademeia, established in 387 B.C. Modern history starts with the launching of Accademia dei Lincei in Rome in 1603 followed by other academies in France, Germany, England, et al. We refer here to several overviews (Lincei 2003, Engelbrecht, Mann 2011, Engdall 2015, Slaus 2020). Throughout all history, academies have united the best brains in society - scientists and scholars - and acted as strongholds of knowledge. They are serving society by generating, preserving, and using knowledge and like in ancient Greece, advising society on many issues.

The modern world is information-rich and changing fast. The question of how we could develop and use knowledge concerns also the activities of academies. Two ideas should be recalled (remind needs a preposition) in this context. First, the Nobel laureate Joseph Rotblat has said that more knowledge means also more responsibility. Second, the International Science Council (ISC) has stressed science as a global public good, and Boulton (2019) asks: "How science can be a transformative power for peace and development during times of complexity and rapid change?"

What is described below, are the basic concepts of how academies of science are organized and what are the principles followed by academies in their activities.

2. Basic principles of activities

   The activities of academies of science are characterized by the basic principles of science itself. Only scientific research based on transparent methodologies, and scientific arguments based on empirical facts and logical analysis bring us closer to the truth, while reflection, imagination, and creativity tell us where and how to explore further. However, in authoritarian societies that still exist in the world, political rules might be used that could create difficulties for most scientists and scholars. Despite such imposed rules, the defenders of freedom and dignity have used the platform of academies for their messages (like Nobel Prize winner Andrei Sakharov). The nature of scientific discourse means that the aim is to achieve truth based on consensus (critical peer review). In policy, political choices and joint visions are decided by voting and often compromises are needed, which is something that cannot happen in science. Without judgement (what is good and what is not), this is the difference between a scientist and a policy-maker, and it explains why the special advisory status of science depends on the commitment of society to impartial expertise. The strength of research relies on peer-review - all statements, advice, and ideas should be scientifically proved and widely accepted in the scientific community. This does not mean that everything in research goes smoothly - the discussions about new ideas and possible changes in paradigms can be taken as driving forces for new knowledge. Academic knowledge cannot be separated or divorced from the social responsibility of how the knowledge is used.

   Two sides of the same coin are: first - the mission of an Academy and second -its members (Fellows). These sides or lines of action are responsive. Every Fellow should have his/her place and appropriate opportunities for participation in the Academy, and the Academy, in turn, should be able to rely on every Fellow to help fulfil its mission.

   The mission of an Academy is usually described in its Statutes or By-laws. The main assets of academies in all their activities are independence, excellence, and authority.

   The advisory role of academies is always mentioned in their mission besides fostering research. Quite typical is the description of the mission of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences: "to promote the sciences and strengthen their influence in society drawing attention to key social issues examining them in scientific terms" (see ). And Leopoldina stresses that the academy "scientifically reviews and addresses key issues that are crucial for the future of society" (see ).

   The role of academies in the modern globalizing world was analysed in detail at a conference organized by the Academy of Sciences in Turin (2020). Loprieno (2020) stresses that Academies besides fostering research should be involved more in society at large. Stock (2020) says that "if we want to be heard,..., we have to be very conscious of the quality of our processes and our work, and the seriousness of the scientific advice". Engelbrecht (2020) lists several roles of academies in the modern world: besides promoting science and scholarship, attention is paid to an advisory role, communication and explanatory role (i.e. promoting scientific understanding), ethical aspects of scientific research, and also science education. Whatever the activities are, all are based on the results of scientific research. Many academies (Leopoldina, Royal Society London, the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences in the Netherlands, etc.) have formulated the guidelines on scientific advice to policy and society. InterAcademy Partnership has formulated the ideas of merit-based academies in the 21st century (IAP 2019): act collectively at a regional and global scale...